Community Responder Models divert specific 911 calls, such as those involving  substance use, mental health, and homelessness, away from law enforcement, and instead, dispatch Community Responders to the scene. Examples include Eugene Orgeon’s CAHOOTS Model,  the Denver Support Team Assisted Response (STAR), and the Seattle Community Assisted Response & Engagement (CARE) Department. See also The Center for American Progress and the Law Enforcement Action Partnership’s detailed guide for more information on the development of a Community Responder model.

Co-Response Models pair law enforcement with mental health clinicians to respond to calls-for-service that typically involve behavioral health crises. As substance use disorders or problematic substance use often co-occur with mental health disorders, these can be a powerful tool for communities addressing substance use. By responding to these types of calls with clinicians, co-response models are effective at de-escalating tense situations, deflecting individuals away from criminal justice involvement, and connecting them to appropriate behavioral health services. One of the earliest examples of the co-response model is the Chapel Hill, North Carolina Crisis Unit. Additional examples of co-response models are the Boston Police Department/Boston Emergency Services Team and Tucson Police Department’s Mental Health Support Team. For additional resources, the International Co-Responder Alliance is a non-profit organization dedicated to advancing co-responder programs across emergency services by providing networking, education, and resources to develop best practices and foster growth.

A particular type of targeted outreach effort that is initiated by an overdose event, and is also known as Naloxone Plus. This can be done for survivors of non-fatal overdoses and their social network or the social network of individuals that fatally overdose. Plymouth County Outreach in Massachusetts is a model example of this kind of targeted outreach program, which utilizes officers and recovery coaches to respond within 72 hours of an overdose event. In Ohio, the Colerain Township Police Department partners with fire and emergency medical providers to engage in a Quick Response Team approach, while the Hamilton County Quick Response Team is a coordinated effort between law enforcement, public health, and community providers to provide post-overdose response, harm reduction resources, and proactive outreach to vulnerable populations.

Active Outreach is when law enforcement agencies and their partners conduct community outreach within the community to identify potential participants. This may include street outreach in locations where individuals with substance use disorders or co-occurring disease are using drugs or at-risk of overdose.  Arlington P.D.’s Outreach Initiative is one of the leading early adopters of this model. Mobile Crisis Units, such as those operated by Morris County (NJ) Sheriff’s Office and partners, are another example of this type of program.

The Hub/Situation Table Model, first developed in Saskatchewan, Canada, in 2011, provides a proactive, collaborative approach to supporting individuals facing acute risks related to substance use, mental health, and other challenges. By addressing these risks early, the model enhances community safety while reducing reliance on emergency services. In weekly meetings, police, social service providers, and other partners identify individuals or families in need and develop a multidisciplinary response plan using a structured four-filter process. This ensures swift connections to treatment, harm reduction, and support resources while maintaining confidentiality through strict de-identification protocols. First adapted in the U.S. by the Chelsea Police Department (MA), the model has since been replicated in cities nationwide.

Pre-arrest diversion initiatives offer alternative options for individuals who have committed a minor offense because of their substance use.^[11] Individuals are often redirected to treatment and recovery resources, rather than going through the usual arrest and court process.^[12] With a pre-arrest diversion program in place, officers often have discretion and protocols to refer individuals to treatment or for support, but the charges are held in abeyance until some course of treatment or restitution is completed. Civil Citation Network and the Wisconsin-based Madison Area Addiction and Recovery Initiative (MARI) are examples of pre-arrest diversion.

Save lives and reduce the harms of substance use by connecting individuals to treatment and other resources. Removing barriers and increasing access to treatment, recovery supports, and harm reduction strategies, such as distributing Naloxone, fentanyl testing kits or connecting people with recovery coaches/care navigators, can help save lives and reduce the harms associated with substance use.^[13]

Reduce the use of the criminal justice system for offenses related to substance use. Arrest is a substantial deprivation of liberty, and even when no further action is taken (e.g., booking, prosecution), it has significant consequences for individuals and costs for communities.^[14] Deflection and diversion programs create new access to treatment and other resources that can reduce recidivism and move people out of further justice-system processing and incarceration.

Create partnerships between public health and public safety entities to address other social issues in the community, for example – housing insecurity, poverty, food insecurity, mental health, domestic abuse, etc.